Lesson 2: Eastern Echoes in Ancient Athens: Asia's Impact on Greek Philosophy

Where did Western history begin?

In a bustling Athenian marketplace, over two millennia ago, the chatter of traders and the aroma of Mediterranean spices filled the air. Amidst this lively scene, a young man approached the famed philosopher, Plato, with a question burning in his heart. "Master," he inquired, "where does history truly begin, and where does it end?" Plato, pausing to consider the vastness of the inquiry, responded not with a direct answer but with another question, "Does the shadow of a tree begin with its first leaf or end with its last?" The young man, puzzled, realized that history, much like the shadow, is not merely about beginnings and endings but about the continuum of events and ideas that shape it. In much the same way, the longstanding belief that Greek thought was purely European in origin is being challenged today. Here we aim to demonstrate that Greek thought and culture, especially during its formative years, was influenced by Asia, particularly from regions like Phoenicia, Babylon, Sumer, and Persia.

The narrative of Greek intellectual and cultural autonomy has been deeply ingrained in the annals of Western history. To many nineteenth-century European scholars, the very idea of "Asian origins" influencing Greek thought was inconceivable. Such a notion seemed to undermine the unique pedestal upon which Greek civilization was placed. However, as we delve deeper into the roots of Greek culture, we find traces of it in Asia. One of the most compelling pieces of evidence is the Greek alphabet and system of writing, which undeniably originated from Phoenicia, located in present-day Syria and Lebanon. Furthermore, the Greeks inherited archives with documents preserved on clay tablets and even entire libraries of literary texts from the Babylonians and the Sumerians. The significance of written language, books, and libraries for the development of Greek thought cannot be overestimated. Additionally, the Greek language itself bears witness to this intermingling, having incorporated numerous words derived from various other Indo-European languages. This linguistic evolution suggests a deeper cultural exchange and influence than previously acknowledged.

Delving further into the realm of philosophy, we find that the Asian influence on Greek thought was not just limited to language and literature. Philosophers such as Anaximander and Anaximenes, revered for their groundbreaking ideas, were notably influenced by Asia. Their philosophical inclinations and speculations seem to be rooted in traditions found in earlier Iranian texts. It's plausible that these texts would have come to the attention of independent-minded Greeks, especially those residing on the coast of Asia Minor. Heraclitus, another prominent figure in Greek philosophy, appears less as a secular thinker and more as a religious philosopher. His ideas, especially those concerning the nature of existence and change, bear a striking resemblance to Persian religious thought. This suggests that Heraclitus might have been in contact with learned Persians or was at least familiar with their teachings. Furthermore, the theological and cosmological systems developed in the late sixth and early fifth centuries, as reflected in the works of luminaries like Homer, Hesiod, Altman, and Thales, also exhibit Iranian influences. Even Pythagoras, often hailed as a "priest-prophet," showcased elements in his teachings that can be traced back to Persian religious traditions.

The timeline of these influences is particularly intriguing. The crucial period of Iranian influence on Greek thought and culture is discernible around 750 to 600 BCE. This era was marked by significant shifts in the Greek socio-political landscape. The transition from imperial kingships to more autonomous city-states was underway, and Greece was expanding its colonization efforts. These endeavors not only disseminated Hellenic culture around the Mediterranean but also opened the doors for external influences to permeate Greek society. The symbiotic relationship between these civilizations is evident in the evolution of Greek art during this period. The emergence of intricate vase painting, advancements in architecture, and the refinement of sculpture all hint at external inspirations. Similarly, in literature, the works of Homer and Hesiod, the rise of lyric poetry, and the evolving standards of behavior all underwent transformation. Most notably, this period is also when most scholars trace the origins of Greek literacy. The confluence of these cultural, artistic, and intellectual shifts during this specific timeframe underscores the profound impact of Asian civilizations on the development of Greek thought and identity.

Some scholars argue that the similarities between Greek and Asian cultures are merely coincidental or arise from universal human experiences rather than direct influence. They contend that just because two civilizations have parallels in their art, literature, or philosophy doesn't necessarily mean one influenced the other. While it's true that some similarities can arise independently, the sheer volume of parallels, especially in the realms of language, art, and philosophy, suggests more than mere coincidence. The Greek alphabet's direct lineage from Phoenician script, for instance, is a tangible piece of evidence that cannot be dismissed as a universal human experience. Additionally, the timeline of these influences aligning with significant socio-political shifts in Greece further strengthens the argument for direct Asian influences.

Another counterclaim posits that the Greeks, being a seafaring and exploratory civilization, came into contact with numerous cultures, not just Asian ones. Therefore, pinpointing Asian influence as the primary external factor shaping Greek thought might be an oversimplification. It's undeniable that the Greeks interacted with various civilizations, and these interactions undoubtedly shaped their culture. However, the focus here is not to negate other influences but to highlight the often-underestimated Asian impact. The evidence presented, from language to philosophy, underscores the depth and breadth of Asian influence, which has been historically overshadowed by a Eurocentric perspective. Recognizing this influence does not diminish the significance of other cultures but rather paints a more holistic picture of Greek civilization's evolution.

The intricate mosaic of Greek culture, often celebrated for its unique contributions to the world, is pieced together with fragments from various ancient civilizations, particularly those from Asia. The dialogue in the Athenian marketplace between the young man and Plato serves as a poignant reminder that history, culture, and thought are not isolated phenomena but are shaped by a continuum of events, exchanges, and influences. The evidence of Asian origins in Greek language, literature, philosophy, and art challenges the traditional narrative of Greek intellectual autonomy. Recognizing these influences not only enriches our understanding of Greek culture but also underscores the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations. In essence, the shadow of Greek history does not merely begin with its first recorded event or end with its last; it is shaped by the myriad influences that cast their light upon it.

Footnotes

“These differences are obviously important and I do not intend to minimize them here. Indian Philosophy, which originates in a religious conception of the world, culminates in a religious position, uniting an interpretation of the Whole with a search of salvation of man by entering the Brahma, far from the world of action [known to Greek philosophers]. Greek philosophy progresses along the road of rationalization, of science, of constructing rules of conduct for man’s life in this world. But this is not all. In Greek philosophy there are many points of similarity with Indian Philosophy. They are precisely those which are considered most characteristically Indian, and which are however also present in Greece. It is simply necessary to see the similarities hidden by the use of different words and approaches. On the other hand, materialist and rationalist positions, which in the Occident are usually considered to have their origins in Greek culture, are found in similar form in India.” Adrados, F.R. (1977-1978). Indian and Greek Philosophy. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 58-59 (Diamond Jubilee Volume), pp. 1-8.

“It is understood that India, Iran, and Greece had a common heritage from Aryan days, although just what the heritage was and how it came to them are different questions. Between India and the Greek world there were two principal avenues of possible communication. One was by water via the Arabian Sea, then by the Persian Gulf or the Red Sea, and eventually by land to the Mediterranean or Aegean. The other route ran overland, through the Iranian plateau and the Mesopotamian river valleys and then by various branchings to different sections of the Mediterranean coast. Any of the routes in ancient times required a long hard journey in the face of forbidding natural conditions. Each was subject to occasional disruptions by war or piracy, but it appears that generally the routes, at least by one makeshift or another, were open… Heraclitus lived in the Persian Empire, Xenophanes was born there, and there were Indians in the army of Xerxes… There is now widespread agreement that from remote times the ancient nations traded with one another much more than has usually been supposed.” Conger, G.P. (1952). Did India Influence Early Greek Philosophers? Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, p. 102-128.

“The ‘recovery’ of Ancient Greek learning also had an early and enduring effect on attempts to trace the prehistory of modern European encounters with Asian societies. Among the results was a narrowed narrative of pre-modern contacts and connections. According to this narrative, ancient Greek knowledge about ‘the East’ was among the wisdom lost to ‘the West’ during the Christian Middle Ages and reclaimed during the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, when ‘the East’ is said to have been ‘rediscovered’.” Reed, A.Y. (2009). Beyond the Land of Nod: Syriac Images of Asia and the Historiography of ‘The West’. History of Religions, Vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 48-87.

“The Mādhyamika methods were clearly and fully developed among Greek dialecticians long before they are attested in India; second, that in Greece as in India this dialectic served at times the absolutist and at times the anti-vikalpa motive; and finally that it is quite possible that there is a historical connection between the Greek and Indian dialectical traditions.” McEvilley, T (1981). Early Greek Philosophy and Mādhyamika. Philosophy East and West, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 141-164.

“Another point of inadequate information was the Greek knowledge of the ancient Brahmanic and Shramanic traditions that prevailed on the Indian Peninsula from the times of the Vedic Rsi-s and the first Tīrthankara-s. The remaining fragments from the lost books of the first Greek writers are full of imaginary descriptions of monstrous people, strange animals and fabulous mountains, springs and rivers. They also contain some material of anthropological interest concerning the manners and customers of the overpopulated Indian tribes. However, there exist two important isolated passages from which we might infer that the peculiar way of life of the Indian ascetics had started appearing in the Persian and the pre-Alexandrian Hellenic worlds. The first passage of Herodotus which describes an Indian tribe, apparently following customs very similar to those of the Jain ascetics who killed nothing and chose to die in an idiosyncratic manner… The second fragment belongs to Ctesias, who refers to another Indian tribe living in the mountains that ate and drank nothing except milk. This description corresponds also to reality and illustrates the custom of certain Hindu ascetics to limit the variety of their food and to exercise lifelong fasting.” Vassiliades, D.T. (2004). Greeks and Buddhism: Historical Contacts in the Development of a Universal Religion. The Eastern Buddhist, Vol. 36, No. 1/2, pp. 134-183.

“No people is an island. The idea of the Greeks as a superior race quickly starts to erode as we follow the course of the wave that passed from the East to the West and then back to the East. We are in a position to appreciate something of the impact of what has been described as ‘the gift of the Magi’ to the West. On the other hand, the useless sixth-century dating of Zoroaster is perhaps not uncharacteristic of the kind of gifts that Greece gave back to the East.” Kingsley, P. (1990). The Greek Origin of the Sixth-Century Dating of Zoroaster. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 245-265.

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